Meditation in Hinduism
The place of meditation (dhyana) in Hindu practice: its roots in the Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita, the main methods, daily practice and modern movements.
Meditation, called dhyana in Sanskrit, has been central to Hindu spiritual life for thousands of years. Hindu traditions developed a wide range of meditative methods, from focusing on a sacred sound or image of God to enquiring directly into the nature of the self. Meditation is regarded as a way to quiet the mind, deepen devotion and ultimately realise one's true nature and reach liberation (moksha).
Ancient roots
The Upanishads describe sages meditating in forest retreats on the self and on Brahman. The Katha Upanishad defines yoga as the firm control of the senses, and the Shvetashvatara Upanishad gives practical advice on sitting upright in a clean, quiet place and controlling the breath.
Meditation in the Bhagavad Gita
Chapter 6 of the Bhagavad Gita gives Krishna's instructions on meditation. The meditator should sit in a clean, secluded place on a firm seat, neither too high nor too low, holding the body, head and neck straight and still, with the gaze directed inward, and fix the mind on God (6.10–14). The Gita compares a steady mind to a lamp in a windless place, whose flame does not flicker (6.19).
Classical yoga
In Patanjali's Yoga Sutras, meditation is the seventh of the eight limbs of yoga, following concentration and leading to absorption (samadhi). See The four paths of yoga and Yoga philosophy.
Methods of meditation
- Mantra meditation: repeating a sacred sound or the name of God, often with a mala of beads. See Mantras.
- Meditation on a form of God: visualising a deity such as Krishna or Shiva in detail, from feet to face, or focusing on a murti.
- Breath meditation: regulating and observing the breath (pranayama).
- Self-enquiry: in Advaita Vedanta, turning attention back to the source of the sense of “I”. The 20th-century sage Ramana Maharshi taught this as the question “Who am I?”.
- Yantra and chakra meditation: in Tantric traditions, focusing on sacred diagrams or on energy centres in the body. See Agamas and Tantras.
Daily practice
Many Hindus include meditation in their daily routine, often alongside puja. The period before dawn, called brahma muhurta, about an hour and a half before sunrise, is considered the best time, when the mind is calm. Traditional Brahmin practice includes sandhyavandanam, a ritual of prayer, breath control and recitation of the Gayatri Mantra at dawn, noon and dusk.
Modern meditation movements
From the twentieth century onwards, Hindu teachers brought meditation to the West. Swami Vivekananda introduced yoga philosophy in the 1890s. Paramahansa Yogananda's Autobiography of a Yogi (1946) inspired millions. Maharishi Mahesh Yogi developed Transcendental Meditation, a mantra-based technique that became famous when the Beatles studied with him in Rishikesh in 1968. Today, meditation drawn from Hindu and Buddhist sources is practised by people of all faiths and none, and is widely studied by medical researchers.
Sources and further reading
- The Bhagavad Gita, chapter 6.
- Edwin Bryant (trans.), The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (North Point Press, 2009).
- Arthur Osborne (ed.), The Teachings of Ramana Maharshi (Rider, 1962).