The Vedic Period

The Vedic period, roughly 1500 to 500 BCE, is the era in which the Vedas, the oldest Hindu scriptures, were composed. It takes its name from these texts, which are almost our only source for the period. During these centuries, many foundations of later Hinduism were laid: the authority of the Vedas, the fire ritual, the role of priests, the ideas of dharma and varna, and, at its end, the philosophy of the Upanishads.

The early Vedic period (c. 1500–1000 BCE)

The Rig Veda reflects a society living in the north-west of the subcontinent, in the land of the “seven rivers” (sapta sindhu), centred on the Punjab. Its people called themselves Arya, “noble”. They were mainly pastoralists, for whom cattle were the chief form of wealth, organised in tribes led by chiefs (rajas). They used horses and chariots, and the Rig Veda describes conflicts between tribes, such as the “Battle of the Ten Kings”.

The origin of the Vedic people is debated. Most historians and linguists hold that speakers of Indo-Aryan languages entered the subcontinent from the north-west during the second millennium BCE, gradually mixing with existing populations. Some writers in India argue that Vedic culture was indigenous. See Where did Hinduism come from?

Religion: the fire sacrifice

Early Vedic religion centred on the yajna, the sacrifice. Priests kindled sacred fires and offered milk, ghee, grain, the sacred drink soma and sometimes animals to the gods, while chanting hymns. The gods, such as Indra, Agni and Varuna (see The Vedic gods), were invited to the sacrifice, and in return were expected to grant rain, cattle, sons, health and victory. The universe was thought to be held in order by rita, cosmic order, which the sacrifice helped to sustain.

The later Vedic period (c. 1000–500 BCE)

In the later Vedic period, Vedic culture spread east into the fertile plains of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers. Iron tools came into use, settled agriculture expanded and tribes developed into territorial kingdoms, such as the Kurus and Panchalas. Kings sponsored grand public rituals, such as the horse sacrifice (ashvamedha) and the royal consecration (rajasuya), to assert their power.

The rituals grew increasingly complex, and the Brahmanas, prose texts explaining them, were composed. Society became more clearly divided into the four varnas, with Brahmin priests and Kshatriya rulers at the top, as described in the Purusha Sukta (Rig Veda 10.90).

Turning inward: the Upanishads

From around 800 BCE, a new kind of text emerged. The Aranyakas and Upanishads reinterpreted the sacrifice symbolically and asked questions about the inner self (Atman) and ultimate reality (Brahman). The doctrines of karma, rebirth and liberation became central. Some Upanishadic teachers were kings rather than priests, and the texts often value knowledge above ritual.

The end of the Vedic age

By around 500 BCE, the Ganges plain had cities and large kingdoms such as Magadha and Kosala. It was an age of religious ferment, in which wandering ascetics (shramanas) questioned Vedic authority. Among them were the Buddha and Mahavira, the founders of Buddhism and Jainism. The period that followed saw the composition of the great epics and the emergence of classical Hinduism. See The epic and Puranic period.

The Vedic legacy

Although later Hinduism changed greatly, the Vedic legacy remains. Vedic hymns are still chanted at weddings and funerals, the sacred fire is at the heart of Hindu ritual, the Gayatri Mantra is recited daily by millions, and the Vedas are still revered as the highest scriptural authority.

Sources and further reading

Romila Thapar, Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 (Allen Lane, 2002).
Michael Witzel, “Vedas and Upanisads”, in Gavin Flood (ed.), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism (Blackwell, 2003).
Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton (trans.), The Rigveda (Oxford University Press, 2014).